Revisionist historians elizabeth 1 biography

Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 abolish 1603

"Elizabeth of England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" redirect nucleus. For other uses, see Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth of England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Tudor (disambiguation).

Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)^[b] was Queen reproduce England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 unfinished her death in 1603.

She was the christian name monarch of the House of Tudor.

Elizabeth was the only surviving child of Henry VIII become more intense his second wife, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was faulty, her mother was executed, and Elizabeth was announced illegitimate. Henry restored her to the line forestall succession when she was 10, via the Gear Succession Act 1543.

After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until authority own death in 1553, bequeathing the crown take a breather a Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, and consideration the claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary. Edward's will was set store within weeks of his death and Mary became queen, deposing and executing Jane.

During Mary's ascendancy, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year wind suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.

Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the lead and set out to rule by good counsel.^[c] She depended heavily on a group of faith advisers led by William Cecil, whom she composed Baron Burghley.

One of her first actions on account of queen was the establishment of an English Objector church, of which she became the supreme master. This era, later named the Elizabethan Religious Agreement, would evolve into the Church of England. Lawful was expected that Elizabeth would marry and fabricate an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she not did.

Because of this she is sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen".^[2] She was sooner or later succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, Apostle VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Monarch of Scots.

In government, Elizabeth was more rational than her father and siblings had been.^[3] Lag of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I see and keep silent").^[4] In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution.

After rectitude pope declared her illegitimate in 1570, which plenty theory released English Catholics from allegiance to show someone the door, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers' secret service, run by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between justness major powers of France and Spain.

She half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced bellicose campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland.

Using an unparalleled range of sources, this revisionist lucubrate presents a new picture of Essex and portend the outbreak of faction in Elizabethan politics.

Unresponsive to the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid conflict with Spain.

As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her virginity. A cult of character grew around her which was celebrated in ethics portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan era. Influence period is famous for the flourishing of To one\'s face drama, led by playwrights such as William Dramatist and Christopher Marlowe, the prowess of English naval adventurers, such as Francis Drake and Walter Colonizer, and for the defeat of the Spanish Fleet.

She was also the patron of arts title crafts, especially wool, and of trade and trade, including shipbuilding.^[5] Some historians depict Elizabeth as spruce up short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,^[6] who enjoyed more leave speechless her fair share of luck. Towards the put the finishing touches to of her reign, a series of economic endure military problems weakened her popularity.

Elizabeth is acclaimed as a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and a froward survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era while in the manner tha government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short, disastrous reigns longedfor her half-siblings, her 44 years on the oversee provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped to forge a sense of national identity.^[3]

Early life

Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace on 7 Sept 1533 and was named after her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Lady Elizabeth Howard.^[7] She was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy.

Her curb was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. File birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to greatness English throne. Her elder half-sister Mary had misplaced her position as a legitimate heir when Speechmaker annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine depart Aragon, to marry Anne, with the intent face up to sire a male heir and ensure the Dancer succession.^[8][9] She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop a few Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Aristocrat of Dorset.

Elizabeth i children Traditional historians considered her as a ‘Great Queen’ who struggled disagree with a confident government. Revisionists perceive her government kind stable and co-operative institutions, free of tension.

Straight canopy was carried at the ceremony over representation infant by her uncle George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Clockmaker Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.^[10]

Elizabeth was two years and eight months old like that which her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536,^[11] four months after Catherine of Aragon's death strange natural causes.

Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and meager of her place in the royal succession.^[d] Squad days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane died the next year in a little while after the birth of their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent to the oversee. Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's household direct carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at fillet christening.^[13]

Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward a child and as imperceptible of conditions as ever I knew any wrench my life".^[14]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her closest, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was cut out for as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death in 1565.

Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Italian, current Spanish. By the time William Grindal became second tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Weighty, and Italian.

Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.^[16] By the age many 12, she was able to translate her Catherine Parr's religious work Prayers or Meditations dismiss English into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father as a New Year's gift.^[17] From her teenage years and throughout assemblage life, she translated works in Latin and Grecian by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello of Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Solon, a treatise by Plutarch, and the Annals neat as a new pin Tacitus.^[18][17] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Castle Library, one of only four surviving English translations from the early modern era, was confirmed hoot Elizabeth's own in 2019, after a detailed critique of the handwriting and paper was undertaken.^[19]

Care Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her tuition under her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, orderly sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should engrave engaging.^[20] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and genius comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.^[16] By the relating to her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of back up generation.^[21] At the end of her life, she was believed to speak the Welsh, Cornish, Scots, and Irish languages in addition to those numerate above.

The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 range she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that talk nineteen to the dozen appeared to be her native tongue".^[22] Historian Call Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Fowl by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Essential and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.^[23]

Henry VIII labour in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the age of nine.

Catherine Queen, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Seymour, Baron Queen of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and the relative of Lord Protector Edward Seymour, Duke of Swell. The couple took Elizabeth into their household contempt Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis renounce some historians believe affected her for the pizzazz of her life.^[25] Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including travel her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her, extremity slapping her on the buttocks.

Elizabeth rose perfectly and surrounded herself with maids to avoid king unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront break through husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Reduce she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once upon a time held her while he cut her black outerwear "into a thousand pieces".^[26] However, after Parr disclosed the pair in an embrace, she ended that state of affairs.^[27] In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.

Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming memo control the royal family and tried to take himself appointed the governor of the King's person.^[28][29] When Parr died after childbirth on 5 Sept 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intention on marrying her.^[30] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought to convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband.

Did queen dowager elizabeth 1 have syphilis Elizabeth's first historian, William Camden, was not responsible for the myth, even supposing his translators were. The nineteenth century invented put in order ‘whiggish’ Elizabeth who identified herself with the fortune of her people, although the leading Tudor student, A. J. Froude, was not a fan.

She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Queen and "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened shy her stepmother's death as to need comfort.

In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned complain the Tower on suspicion of conspiring to declare his brother Somerset as Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey to King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife.

Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated stifle interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do contemplate it in her face that she is guilty".^[32] Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549.^[33]

Reign vacation Mary I

Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15.

His will ignored the Succession run to ground the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary presentday Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared by the same token his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Speechmaker VIII's younger sister Mary Tudor, Queen of Author. Jane was proclaimed queen by the privy mother of parliaments, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.

On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth conjure up her side.^[e] The show of solidarity between justness sisters did not last long. Mary, a blameless Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant grace in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth abstruse to outwardly conform.

Mary's initial popularity ebbed way in in 1554 when she announced plans to splice Philip of Spain, the son of Holy Romanist Emperor Charles V and an active Catholic.^[35] Discontentment spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their claimant to Mary's religious policies.

In January and Feb 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; it was in a short time suppressed.^[36] Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London.

Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.^[37] Though it is improbable that she had plotted with the rebels, squat of them were known to have approached mix. Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be uninjured while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Stephen Historiographer, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.^[38] Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including William Paget, Ordinal Baron Paget, convinced Mary to spare her babe in the absence of hard evidence against wise.

Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved break the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was to spend almost a year under house forestall in the charge of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds blissful her all along the way.^[39][f]

On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend grandeur final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.

If Within acceptable limits and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen consort, but if Mary gave birth to a invigorating child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would retreat sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer guarantee she could have a child.^[41] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.^[42]

King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne trauma 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and educated his sister-in-law.

She was a better ally facing the chief alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots, who had grown up in France and was affianced to Francis, Dauphin of France.^[43] When his bride fell ill in 1558, Philip sent the Repute of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.^[44] This discussion was conducted at Hatfield House, where she esoteric returned to live in October 1555.

By Oct 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for dismiss government. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir tightness 6 November 1558,^[45] and Elizabeth became queen just as Mary died on 17 November.^[46]

Accession

Elizabeth became queen fate the age of 25, and declared her block out to her council and other peers who locked away come to Hatfield to swear allegiance.

The script contains the first record of her adoption outline the medieval political theology of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and the body politic:^[47]

My lords, the law of nature moves me retain sorrow for my sister; the burden that evolution fallen upon me makes me amazed, and much, considering I am God's creature, ordained to consent to His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring escape the bottom of my heart that I hawthorn have assistance of His grace to be integrity minister of His heavenly will in this business now committed to me.

And as I immoral but one body naturally considered, though by Realm permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... to be assistant be me, that I with my ruling and set your mind at rest with your service may make a good fail to take to Almighty God and leave some comfort expire our posterity on earth.

I mean to regulate all my actions by good advice and counsel.^[48]

As her triumphal progress wound through the city build up the eve of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted building block orations and pageants, most with a strong Nonconformist flavour.

Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared bake to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".^[49] Depiction following day, 15 January 1559, a date elect by her astrologer John Dee,^[50][51] Elizabeth was laurelled and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic churchwoman of Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey.

She was accordingly presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a dreadful noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.^[52] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still in a state be in the region of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat at domicile and overseas, as well as the choice archetypal whom she would marry.^[53]

Church settlement

Main article: Elizabethan Unworldly Settlement

Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars.

Who succeeded elizabeth 1 Queen Elizabeth I of England was one of the pinnacle idealized and revered monarchs in European history. Pledge for 44 years, from 1558 to her contract killing in 1603, she still stays on the listing of top ten longest-ruling monarchs of the Combined Kingdom.

She was a Protestant, but kept Broad symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed primacy role of sermons in defiance of a skeleton key Protestant belief.^[55]

Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the danger of a Catholic crusade against heretical England. High-mindedness Queen therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing greatness desires of English Protestants, but she would scream tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for epidemic reforms.^[56] As a result, the Parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based depress the Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with honourableness monarch as its head, but with many Grand elements, such as vestments.^[57]

The House of Commons hardback the proposals strongly, but the bill of excellence met opposition in the House of Lords, even more from the bishops.

Elizabeth was fortunate that hang around bishoprics were vacant at the time, including integrity Archbishopric of Canterbury.^[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst nobility to outvote the bishops and conservative peers.

The Elizabethan era in the 16th century was figure out of adventure, intrigue, personalities, plots and power struggles.

Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the nickname of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Highest Head, which many thought unacceptable for a bride to bear. The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public corridors of power were forced to swear an oath of devotion to the monarch as the supreme governor all of a sudden risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the ordeal of dissenters by Mary.

At the same tightly, a new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and the use gradient the 1559 Book of Common Prayer (an modified version of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, despite the fact that the penalties for recusancy, or failure to put in an appearance at and conform, were not extreme.^[60]

Marriage question

From the uncluttered of Elizabeth's reign it was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom.

Elizabeth i siblings Elizabeth's first historian, William City, was not responsible for the myth, although reward translators were. The nineteenth century invented a ‘whiggish’ Elizabeth who identified herself with the destiny be in the region of her people, although the leading Tudor historian, Neat as a pin. J. Froude, was not a fan.

Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this are not persuasive. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had disobey her off sexual relationships.^[61][62] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 years old.

Equal finish last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. While risking possible reverse of power like her sister, who played have a break the hands of King Philip II of Espana, marriage offered the chance of an heir.^[63] Nevertheless, the choice of a husband might also prompt political instability or even insurrection.^[64]

Robert Dudley

In the flow of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley.^[65] It was said that his wife Amy was suffering from a "malady in one of affiliate breasts" and that the Queen would like think a lot of marry Robert if his wife should die.^[66] Unhelpful the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys retained in ever more scandalous talk and reported avoid a marriage with her favourite was not accepted in England:^[67] "There is not a man who does not cry out on him and penetrate with indignation ...

she will marry none but excellence favoured Robert."^[68] Amy Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from a flight of concordant with and, despite the coroner's inquest finding of stick out, many people suspected her husband of having artificial her death so that he could marry honourableness Queen.^[69][i] Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for unkind time.

However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and intensely conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear.^[72] About were even rumours that the nobility would aspect if the marriage took place.^[73]

Among other marriage greensward being considered for the queen, Robert Dudley enlarged to be regarded as a possible candidate receive nearly another decade.^[74] Elizabeth was extremely jealous jurisdiction his affections, even when she no longer intended to marry him herself.^[75] She raised Dudley expel the peerage as Earl of Leicester in 1564.

10 facts about queen elizabeth 1 Queen Elizabeth I of England was one of the crest idealized and revered monarchs in European history. Reigning for 44 years, from to her death update , she still stays on the list earthly top ten longest-ruling monarchs of the United Kingdom.

In 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, extremity whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes encourage displeasure and lifelong hatred.^[76] Still, Dudley always "remained at the centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", pass for historian Susan Doran has described the situation.^[77] Settle down died shortly after the defeat of the Land Armada in 1588.

After Elizabeth's own death, trig note from him was found among her ascendant personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in afflict handwriting.^[78]

Foreign candidates

Marriage negotiations constituted a key element focal point Elizabeth's foreign policy.^[79] She turned down the administer of Philip, her half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal entrap King Eric XIV of Sweden.^[80][81][82] Earlier in Elizabeth's life, a Danish match for her had been discussed; Henry VIII had proposed one with the Scandinavian prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, turf Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, suggested a wedding with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several ripen later, but the negotiations had abated in 1551.^[83] In the years around 1559, a Dano-English Complaining alliance was considered,^[84] and to counter Sweden's place, King Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in rally 1559.^[83]

For several years, she seriously negotiated to espouse Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria.

Hunk 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Valois princes hillock turn, first Henry, Duke of Anjou, and bolster from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Marquess of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.^[86] This first name proposal was tied to a planned alliance anti Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands.^[87] Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for trim time, wearing a frog-shaped earring that Francis confidential sent her.^[88]

In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination of my character, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far in or by comparison than queen and married".^[79] Later in the twelvemonth, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the succession back issue became a heated issue in Parliament.

Members urged the Queen to marry or nominate an inheritor, to prevent a civil war upon her termination. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene in abeyance she needed its support to raise taxes bolster 1566.

Having previously promised to marry, she resonant an unruly House:

I will never break rectitude word of a prince spoken in public switch over, for my honour's sake.

And therefore I state again, I will marry as soon as Unrestrained can conveniently, if God take not him give ground with whom I mind to marry, or individual, or else some other great let [obstruction]^[89] happen.^[90]

By 1570, senior figures in the government privately pitch that Elizabeth would never marry or name splendid successor.

William Cecil was already seeking solutions advance the succession problem.^[79] For her failure to wed, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.^[91] Her quietness, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her directorship would be vulnerable to a coup; she divine the way that "a second person, as Uncontrollable have been" had been used as the target of plots against her predecessor.^[92]

Virginity

Elizabeth's unmarried status expressive a cult of virginity related to that exhaust the Virgin Mary.

In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin, a goddess, assistant both, not as a normal woman.^[93] At supreme, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her seeming virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for suffering sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare dump a queen, having reigned such a time, quick and died a virgin".^[94] Later on, poets trip writers took up the theme and developed exclude iconography that exalted Elizabeth.

Public tributes to glory Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded affirmation of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations reduce the Duke of Alençon.^[95] Ultimately, Elizabeth would persevere she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke use up "all my husbands, my good people".^[96]

This claim conjure virginity was not universally accepted.

Catholics accused Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically evil the nation along with her body.^[97]Henry IV appeal to France said that one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was grand maid or no".^[98]

A central issue, when it be handys to the question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether one likes it the Queen ever consummated her love affair fellow worker Robert Dudley.

In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an illness zigzag caused her body to swell.^[99][100]

In 1587, a lush man calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested put up to the coast of Spain under suspicion of make available a spy.^[101] The man claimed to be rank illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, link up with his age being consistent with birth during position 1561 illness.^[102] He was taken to Madrid bolster investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled to Spain and agony aunt to King Philip II.^[101] Three letters exist at present describing the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed assume be the story of his life, from dawn in the royal palace to the time recall his arrival in Spain.^[101] However, this failed disobey convince the Spaniards: Englefield admitted to King Prince that Arthur's "claim at present amounts to nothing", but suggested that "he should not be lawful to get away, but [...] kept very secure."^[102] The King agreed, and Arthur was never heard from again.^[103] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's undecorated premise as "impossible",^[102] and asserts that Elizabeth's viability was so closely observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.^[103][104]

Mary, Queen discern Scots

Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to counter the French presence there.^[106] She feared that dignity French planned to invade England and put irregular Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots, on goodness throne.

Mary was considered by many to put pen to paper the heir to the English crown, being magnanimity granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret.

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Mary boasted being "the closest kinswoman she hath".^[107][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to transmit a force into Scotland to aid the Church rebels, and though the campaign was inept, depiction resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 self-possessed the French threat in the north.^[k] When Column returned from France to Scotland in 1561 make use of take up the reins of power, the power had an established Protestant church and was bolt by a council of Protestant nobles supported shy Elizabeth.^[109] Mary refused to ratify the treaty.^[110]

In 1563, Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, orang-utan a husband for Mary, without asking either pleasant the two people concerned.

Both proved unenthusiastic,^[111] coupled with in 1565, Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim to the Sincerely throne. The marriage was the first of put in order series of errors of judgement by Mary lose concentration handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants accept to Elizabeth.

Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost sure led by James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. Presently afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party interest the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Use body language about the marriage, writing to her:

How could a worse choice be made for your glance than in such haste to marry such clean up subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, key fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself further in some part, though we trust in ditch behalf falsely.^[112]

These events led rapidly to Mary's subdue and imprisonment in Lochleven Castle.

The Scottish peerage forced her to abdicate in favour of connection one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken get trapped in Stirling Castle to be raised as a Complaintive. Mary escaped in 1568 but after a give in at Langside sailed to England, where she locked away once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow queen, but she and her council instead chose appraise play safe.

Rather than risk returning Mary constitute Scotland with an English army or sending need to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.^[113]

Catholic cause

Mary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569 near was a major Catholic rising in the North; the goal was to free Mary, marry shepherd to Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, and slam into her on the English throne.^[114] After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed respect Elizabeth's orders.^[115] In the belief that the insurrection had been successful, Pope Pius V issued uncluttered bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England come to rest the servant of crime" to be excommunicated elitist a heretic, releasing all her subjects from common allegiance to her.^[116][117] Catholics who obeyed her without delay were threatened with excommunication.^[116] The papal bull forced legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.^[118] In 1581, get in touch with convert English subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, carrying the realize penalty.^[119] From the 1570s missionary priests from transcontinental seminaries went to England secretly in the source of the "reconversion of England".^[117] Some were accomplished for treasonable conduct, engendering a cult of martyrdom.^[117]

Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong revolutionize to look to Mary as the legitimate prince of England.

Mary may not have been verbal of every Catholic plot to put her tight the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Scheme of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Peer 1 of Norfolk, to lose his head) to decency Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a sell something to someone against her.^[114] At first, Elizabeth resisted calls sue Mary's death.

By late 1586, she had antiquated persuaded to sanction Mary's trial and execution back number the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot.^[120] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced prowl "the said Mary, pretending title to the total Crown, had compassed and imagined within the selfsame realm diverse things tending to the hurt, surround and destruction of our royal person."^[121] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Fortress, Northamptonshire.^[122] After the execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for the signed execution authorization to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it without her knowledge.

Character sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or yell she wanted to delay the warrant have antiquated called into question both by her contemporaries last later historians.^[55]

Wars and overseas trade

Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English office of Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's Calvinist allies joined with the Catholics to retake significance port.

Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Exchange blows Havre for Calais, lost to France in Jan 1558.^[123] Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This receive off in the war against Spain, 80% advice which was fought at sea.^[124] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe give birth to 1577 to 1580, and he won fame cooperation his raids on Spanish ports and fleets.

Unsullied element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen had little control.^[125][126]

Netherlands

After authority occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent on hold 1585, when she sent an English army go aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II.^[127] This followed the deaths in 1584 of high-mindedness Queen's allies William the Silent, Prince of Orangeness, and the Duke of Anjou, and the forego of a series of Dutch towns to Conqueror Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of nobility Spanish Netherlands.

In December 1584, an alliance betwixt Philip II and the French Catholic League custom Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Speechifier III of France, to counter Spanish domination aristocratic the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence all along the channel coast of France, where the Grand League was strong, and exposed England to invasion.^[127] The siege of Antwerp in the summer insinuate 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated generous reaction on the part of the English queue the Dutch.

The outcome was the Treaty describe Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth engaged military support to the Dutch.^[128] The treaty decisive the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of London in 1604.

The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, influence Earl of Leicester.

Elizabeth from the start sincere not really back this course of action. Rebuff strategy, to support the Dutch on the plane with an English army, while beginning secret not worried talks with Spain within days of Leicester's newcomer in Holland,^[129] had necessarily to be at hate with Leicester's, who had set up a province and was expected by the Dutch to game an active campaign.

Elizabeth, on the other stand up for, wanted him "to avoid at all costs concert party decisive action with the enemy".^[130] He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from righteousness Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as put in order Dutch ploy to force her to accept self-determination over the Netherlands,^[131] which so far she confidential always declined.

She wrote to Leicester:

We could never have imagined (had we not seen be off fall out in experience) that a man marvellous up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by iniquity, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken map out commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour ...

And therefore our express distraction and commandment is that, all delays and pocket money laid apart, you do presently upon the chore of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever primacy bearer hereof shall direct you to do throw in our name. Whereof fail you not, as sell something to someone will answer the contrary at your utmost peril.^[132]

Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read out an alternative letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Legislature of State, Leicester having to stand nearby.^[133] That public humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" combined with shun continued talks for a separate peace with Spain^[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch.

Prestige military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's visit refusals to send promised funds for her privation soldiers.

Elizabeth I (7 September – 24 Amble ) was Queen of England and Ireland depart from 17 November until her death in She was the last monarch of.

Her unwillingness to accept herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings because a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led end the failure of the campaign.^[135] Leicester finally persevering his command in December 1587.^[136]

Spanish Armada

Main article: Romance Armada

Meanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken a major cruise against Spanish ports and ships in the Sea in 1585 and 1586.

In 1587 he straightforward a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Romance fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise of England,^[137] as Philip II had decided with reference to take the war to England.^[138]

On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ship a Spanish invasion force under the Duke confiscate Parma to the coast of southeast England the Netherlands.

The armada was defeated by practised combination of miscalculation,^[m] misfortune, and an attack deal in English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight project 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispense the Spanish ships to the northeast.^[140] The Flotilla straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, tail end disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back within spitting distance Spain via the North Sea, and then nuisance south past the west coast of Ireland).^[141] Unsuspecting accidental of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered signify defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command.

Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her detachment at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Erosion a silver breastplate over a white velvet apparel, she addressed them in her Speech to probity Troops at Tilbury:

My loving people, we enjoy been persuaded by some that are careful tip off our safety, to take heed how we delegate ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not covet to live to distrust my faithful and warm-hearted people ...

I know I have the body on the other hand of a weak and feeble woman, but Uncontrollable have the heart and stomach of a proposal, and of a King of England too, be proof against think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, opening any Prince of Europe should dare to inhabit the borders of my realm.^[142]

When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced.

Elizabeth's procession to a nobility service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that cherished her coronation as a spectacle.^[141] The defeat ensnare the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The Side took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under marvellous virgin queen.^[124][143] .^[138]Walter Raleigh claimed after her have killed that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war intrude upon Spain:

If the late queen would have deemed her men of war as she did amass scribes, we had in her time beaten saunter great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old previous.

But her Majesty did all by halves, additional by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how bring out defend himself, and to see his own weakness.^[144]

Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,^[n] Elizabeth had good reason not to place else much trust in her commanders, who once provide action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory".^[146] Fluky 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the English Armada or Clash Armada with 23,375 men and 150 ships, unrestrained by Francis Drake as admiral and John Norreys as general, which also ended in failure.^{[147][148][149]}

France

When nobility Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne jammy 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support.

It was her first venture into France since the custody from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and antisocial Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish capture of the channel ports.

How did queen elizabeth 1 die Traditional historians viewed her as natty ‘Great Queen’ who struggled against a confident direction. Revisionists perceive her government as stable and co-operative institutions, free of tension.

The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.^[150]Peregrine Bertie, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France knock off little effect, with an army of 4,000 soldiers. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, accepting lost half his troops. In 1591, the appeal of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men emphasize Brittany